In ‘Politics’, Aristotle makes a clear statement: “it is a mistake to believe that the statesman is the same as. the manager of the household.”^[1] This idea goes beyond a simple comparison; it points out key differences between the nature of individuals or households and that of the city. In this essay, I’ll examine and explain two of Aristotle’s arguments on why the individual or household and the city are different by nature.

The first argument is a phylogenetic argument, which states that human associations, or communities, first developed through a “conjugal union”^[2] of a male and a female to form a household, which then associated with more households to form a village, and eventually a number of villages joined together to form a city (or polis), which is the “final and perfect association”^[3] that has achieved the “height of full self-sufficiency.”^[4]The phylogenetic argument shows how a human association evolves from an individual to a city. However, if one only considers this argument, then one might think that the two only differ “according to the number”^[5] and that the city is simply an extension of the individual and the family.

Aristotle argues that the phylogenetic argument alone “cannot be accepted as correct,”^[6] and provides a second argument, a teleological argument, which states that “the city is prior in the order of nature to the family and the individual”^[7], even though it developed later in the process of human society. According to Aristotle, the reason why the city takes precedence over the family and the individual in the natural order of things is that “the whole is necessarily prior to the part.”^[8]

Aristotle’s teleological argument can be explained in the following way:

Firstly, Aristotle defines the nature of things as “what each thing is when its growth is complete.”^[9] Thus for Aristotle, the nature of a thing is not what the thing is but what it is capable of becoming. Its nature is not a static but a developing conception. For example, an acorn naturally grows into an oak tree, and the resulting tree exists by nature and not by craft. Likewise, in Politics the nature of a state can only be discovered by observation of its development and tendencies. Using this definition, Aristotle makes two assertions about human nature. In the first assertion, he argues that humans are naturally communal animals. In the second, he argues that “in a greater degree than bees or other gregarious animals,”^[10]  human beings are political animals by nature.

Aristotle argues that humans are communal animals because they have an innate desire to live a social life, even when they do not require mutual support. Additionally, he argues that humans are political animals, not only because of their natural inclination to form partnerships with others but also because of their unique capacity for reason speech. This capacity allows humans to communicate and deliberate about what is “what is advantageous and what is the reverse”^[11] to each other, leading to the development and communication of moral concepts such as justice, goodness, and evil. This, in turn, leads to the formation of associations that are absent in other animals. For Aristotle, the “most sovereign and inclusive”^[12] form of such an association is the city or political association. Since the capacity for reason and speech eventually leads to the pursuit of the city, Aristotle believes that humans are political animals by nature.

Secondly, Aristotle argues that, according to his definition of nature, all associations, including individuals, families, villages, and cities, exist by nature. However, it is crucial to distinguish between the nature of the family/village and that of the city, as they possess different ends. The city differs from the other, more primitive and pre-political associations because it serves as the “consummation” of earlier associations, achieving full self-sufficiency, whereas the family and village exist by nature “for the satisfaction of daily recurrent need.”^[13] Aristotle claims that for any city, “it must devote itself to the end of encouraging goodness”^[14]. Thus, the distinction between the family and the city lies in the fact that while the purpose of the family is “merely to sustain life”, the purpose of the city is to enable citizens to “live a good life.” ^[15] In other words, while the end of the family corresponds to achieving the communal aspect of human nature, the end of the city corresponds to achieving both the communal and political aspects. Thus, one can say that the city is prior to the individual and family by order of nature because the city is aiming at achieving a higher moral end.

Aristotle asserts that the city, as the consummation of all associations, “includes all the rest,” “pursues this aim the most,” and is “directed to the most good.”^[16] Consequently, it is reasonable for him to claim that the city represents the whole, while other associations only represent parts of the ideal function of the city. The city achieves its end because it is composed of equal and free citizens, with political leadership exercised by the citizens themselves in rotation. The city provides opportunities for individuals to participate in politics and develop their moral character. Only within the city can individuals fully utilize their political nature, through activities such as deliberation and decision-making, which enable their moral character to be fully realized through rational communication.

Overall, Aristotle believed that humans are naturally social and political animals, distinguishing them from other creatures. However, individuals must reside in a city in order to develop and realize their natural capacities. Without the city, an individual is no more than a beast^[17], since they are not self-sufficient. This is similar to how a hand loses its ‘nature’ as a hand when the body is destroyed. Therefore, it can be argued that the city takes priority in the natural order over the family and the individual.

Works Cited

Cahn, S. M. (2015). Political philosophy : the essential texts . New York: Oxford University Press.

1. Pol. 1252a1-7 ↑
2. Pol. 1252b2-17 ↑
3. Pol. 1252b27 ↑
4. Pol. 1252b27 ↑
5. Pol. 1252a7-18 ↑
6. Pol. 1252a7-18 ↑
7. Pol. 1253b18 ↑
8. Pol. 1253b18 ↑
9. Pol. 1252b27 ↑
10. Pol. 1253a7-18 ↑
11. Pol. 1253a7-18 ↑
12. Pol. 1252a1-7 ↑
13. Pol. 1252b17-27 ↑
14. Pol 1280b6 ↑
15. Pol. 1252b29-30 ↑
16. Pol. 1252a1-7 ↑
17. Pol. 1253a25 ↑

The philosophical tradition of Daoism, as found in the Daodejing, centers on two key ideas: Dao (the Way) and wuwei (non-action). Dao, a complex and abstract idea, appears roughly 70 times in the Daodejing. Its interpretation varies greatly among scholars and readers, leading to significant debate. In this essay, I plan to delve into the meaning of Dao and wuwei in Daoist philosophy, discuss their importance, and share my views on these concepts.

After closely studying the texts, I suggest that there are three interconnected layers of meaning for Dao. These layers are: 1) Dao as a metaphysical concept, 2) Dao as objective laws and principles, and 3) Dao as practical and moral guidelines. I will detail each of these layers in the following sections.

1. Dao as a Metaphysical Concept

Laozi endows Dao with numerous metaphysical properties. A key feature of the Dao is its generative capacity, seen as the source of all existence. Laozi suggests that “Dao gave birth to One, which led to Two, then Three, and ultimately to the myriad of things.” This implies Dao as the progenitor of all things. In chapter 6, Laozi uses feminine imagery to characterize Dao, specifically its reproductive functions: firstly, he likens Dao to the “mother of the world,” emphasizing its nurturing essence; secondly, he equates Dao to a womb, the “root of heaven and earth”. This comparison highlights the Dao‘s generative and nurturing qualities, as it functions like a “womb” for the entire universe.

Moreover, Dao, while productive, is depicted as empty yet inexhaustible. Laozi compares Dao to an empty vessel that remains unfilled despite its use, yet is vast and deep. This emptiness, much like a womb, underlines Dao‘s nourishing and generative void, serving as the source of all life and matter in the universe. This nurturing capability of Dao is also symbolized as a valley, abundant with rivers and fertile soil that sustains various life forms, signifying its perpetual substance. As it embodies all things without being bound to any, Dao possesses an empty nature. Hence, if correctly interpreted, Laozi confers an ontological status to Dao as the basis of all existence.

Dao is also characterized by its consistency and eternity. Laozi underscores that the Dao, being soundless, formless, and independent, remains unaltered. In Chapter 22 of the Daodejing, Laozi states, “The myriad creatures are all in motion! I watch as they turn back. The teeming multitude of things, each returns home to its root.” This quote highlights the constancy and eternity of the Dao, as it not only gives rise to all things but also brings them back to their origins. The multitude of creatures act, interact, create, and transform within the natural world, engaging in a complex dance of existence. However, under the guidance of the Dao, they eventually return to their original position and form. The Dao‘s eternity and constancy arise from its all-inclusive nature, as it encompasses all things without limitations.

Given the attributes and characteristics of Dao, we can infer that it is the origin of all existence, transcending the dualities of being and non-being, substance and emptiness. This indicates that Dao is the metaphysical and ontological foundation of the universe, and its power and impact are beyond human comprehension

2. Dao as Objective Laws and Principles

Beyond its metaphysical implications, Dao may also be interpreted as a collection of natural principles or laws that are discernible and articulable by us. This interpretation of Dao, however, is inherently partial, bound by temporal and situational constraints, and relegated to particular descriptions. Essentially, this perspective of Dao mirrors nature, relying on our empirical observations, investigations, and applications to determine its patterns within nature and the universe.

Laozi elucidates, “Man follows Earth. Earth follows Heaven. Heaven follows Dao. Dao follows Nature.” Our ability to uncover principles and laws in nature stems from Dao‘s encompassing nature, pervading all things in the world, which underpins the spontaneity and naturalness of the world. Thus, what we observe are still aspects of the Dao, even though the totality of Dao remains beyond comprehension.

As an illustration, Laozi employs the metaphor of water, extrapolated from his observations of water’s conduct in nature, to propose that we should emulate water: non-contentious, humble, and lowly. This suggests that we can navigate the path of Dao, while acknowledging that its totality remains beyond our grasp. The Dao that can be verbalized is not the constant Dao, and as such, we must recognize the boundaries of our comprehension as we attempt to incorporate its principles into our lives. By observing and comprehending patterns, principles, and laws within the natural world, Laozi could unveil meaningful insights into the Dao and its applications.

3. Dao as Practical and Moral Guidelines

The third dimension of understanding views Dao not merely as an abstract philosophical notion, but also as a practical code of conduct for daily life. Laozi posits that ethics are predicated on the alignment of human behavior with Dao. This alignment is prescriptive, demanding adherence to Dao from all humans. Laozi asserts that an act is virtuous only if it aligns with the natural path of Dao. Morality involves emulating Dao, which surpasses human interpretations of good. When humans implement Dao in their actions, they achieve Virtue (De). Likewise, other creatures that manifest Dao in their existence exemplify Virtue (De). In this context, “Virtue” delineates the ideal state for all forms of existence.

Laozi’s teachings primarily emphasize the moral principle of non-action or inactivity (wuwei). It could be argued that the primary motivation behind Laozi’s Daodejing is the promotion of non-action. Non-action, as proposed by Laozi, is not tantamount to passivity or laziness but a purposeful pursuit aimed at accomplishing more than what excessive effort could achieve. For instance, in chapter 38, Laozi states, “Those of highest Virtue do not strive for Virtue and so they have it. Those of lowest Virtue never stray from Virtue and so they lack it.” In chapter 22, he notes, “Because they do not contend, no one in the world can contend with them.”

Moreover, Laozi employs various metaphors to elucidate non-action, such as those of the female and valleys. In chapters 6 and 28, he likens “the role of the female” to “the spirit of the valley” and “the ravine of the empire.” These metaphors resonate with the water metaphor, a recurring theme in the Daodejing. Valleys and ravines, being low-lying land areas usually with a stream, embody and reflect water’s attributes such as receptivity, passivity, softness, yielding, humility, and harmony with all things in nature. These qualities align with the principle of non-action. Laozi also underscores how the female (symbolizing non-action) overcomes the male (symbolizing power and dominance). In chapter 28, he advises to “keep to the role of the female,” and in chapter 61, he claims that “the female always gets the better of the male.” This suggests the triumph of the feminine over the masculine akin to the soft overcoming the hard, the weak overcoming the strong, the yielding overcoming the dominating, and so forth.

On a political level, non-action is the ideal method of ruling. For instance, in chapter 61, Laozi takes the diplomacy between a large state and a small state as an example: “The large state, by taking the lower position, annexes the small state.” Laozi insists that when the large state is tolerant and submissive instead of aggressive and militant, it can secure the goodwill and trust of the smaller state. Therefore, those who act in accordance with principles of non-contending and non-acting put themselves in a more advantageous position.

However, it’s important to note that, unlike Confucius, Laozi’s principle of non-action isn’t designed to “rectify” the world, nor does it provide practical guidance for restoring order in a corrupt world. Instead, he presents an ideal suited for a primitive society with basic natural needs. Laozi held that all unnatural desires stem from societal conditioning. In his perspective, human nature is inherently good, and the natural world is harmonious. Thus, the less human interference, the more harmonious human society becomes.

In conclusion, following the exploration of the tri-layered interpretation of Dao and the concepts of wuwei as a moral and political paradigm, I wish to put forth personal insights and assessments.

Although this essay has delved into numerous metaphysical and ontological facets of Dao, my personal viewpoint is that these are not the primary concerns or objectives of Laozi in composing this text. Instead, I propose that Laozi’s intention was to establish a philosophical basis for his moral and political philosophies. According to my interpretation and assessment, roughly 80% of Dao‘s usage centers on the second and third layers of meaning. Another indication supporting my conjecture is the frequent usage of the term “sage,” referring to an ideal ruler, which features 32 times across 23 chapters in the text. This implies that Laozi dedicated approximately one-third of the entire text to discussing the nature of ideal governance and the potential pitfalls rulers should avoid. Consequently, I put forth that Laozi is more of a pragmatic problem-solver than a theoretical philosopher or mystic practitioner. The emphasis on practicality and real-world applicability is more apparent when assessing the moral and political dimensions of his teachings.

However, I concede that more evidence and corroboration are needed to fortify my argument, and alternate viewpoints are plausible. It is vital to persist in probing Laozi’s philosophy from diverse perspectives to attain a holistic understanding of his teachings and intents. Like any philosophical text, interpretations and evaluations may diverge, yet the depth of Laozi’s thought offers abundant scope for continued discourse and analysis.

Note:

1. The principal translations consulted for this essay were those by Philip J. Ivanhoe and D.C. Lau.
2. Due to constraints in time and space, I did not delve into why Laozi proposed non-action as superior to taking action. However, his argument supporting this viewpoint can be traced to chapter 40.

 

The objective of this essay is to conduct an in-depth study of the term “female” as it appears in the Daodejing, with a particular focus on two specific characters – ci 雌 and pin 牝 – that are intrinsically associated with femininity in the text. Although typically used to describe female animals, plants, or feminine objects, an interpretation grounded in Daoist cosmology allows for the extension of the meaning of ci and pin to encompass the human female, in line with the Daoist view of a unitary whole, where humans and other species are contiguous. This usage is consistent with the fundamental Daoist principle that posits humans are not superior to other forms of life. The study will take a three-pronged approach: (1) a review of occurrences of ci and pin in Daodejing; (2) an interpretation of their meaning(s) based on the context of the chapters where they are found; and (3) an exploration of their broader significance within the text.

To initiate the study, I will examine the instances of ci and pin in Daodejing. Primarily, I will rely on D.C. Lau’s translation. ci appeared twice in chapters 10 and 28, respectively: “When the gates of heaven open and shut, are you capable of keeping to the role of the female (ci)?” and “Know the male (xiong 雄), but keep to the role of the female (ci), and be a ravine to the empire.” pin appeared five times in chapters 6, 55, and 61: “The spirit of the valley never dies. This is called the mysterious female (pin). The gateway of the mysterious female (pin) is called the root of heaven and earth”; “It does not know the union of male and female (pin), yet its male member will stir. This is because its virility is at its height”; “A large state is the lower reaches of a river: the place where all the streams of the world unite. In the union of the world, the female (pin) always gets the better of the male (xiong) by stillness. Being still, she takes the lower position”.

Drawing upon the selected passages, it emerges that Laozi’s portrayal of femininity can be categorized into the following dimensions:

1. The Female embodies qualities such as softness, passiveness, yieldingness, humility etc.

In Chapters 6 and 28, Laozi equates “the role of the female” with “the spirit of the valley” and “the ravine of the empire.” The metaphors of the valley and the ravine have a strong connection with the metaphor of water, a prominent motif in Daodejing. Valleys and ravines, being low-lying areas of land often traversed by streams, are embodiments of water, reflecting its inherent “qualities.” As per Laozi, water refrains from entering into contention^[1] (buzheng 不争) with other things and is compatible with all things (wanwu 万物) in nature, which signifies its receptiveness and passivity. In addition, Needham ascribes softness and yieldingness to water, as he points out that water is “yielding and assumes the shape of whatever vessel it is placed in^[2]“ (Needham, 1956). Laozi also asserts that humans, akin to water’s natural inclination to flow from higher to lower regions, should strive to maintain a “low” stance, implying the virtues of humility and discretion. This is exemplified in Chapter 61, where the act of assuming a lower position is associated with both water and pin. Consequently, one might argue that water, ravine, the spirit of the valley, and the female form all metaphorically epitomize attributes such as softness, yieldingness, receptiveness, passivity, humility, etc., which to a certain degree are traits commonly associated with the female gender.

2. The female overcomes the male

In chapter 28, Laozi urges one to “keep to the role of female”; in chapter 61, Laozi asserts that “the female always gets the better of the male.” It is clear that, in Laozi’s perception, the female overcomes the male. By corollary, this also implies that the feminine overcomes the masculine in such a way that: soft overcomes hard, weak overcomes strong^[3], and yieldingness to triumph over dominance. In chapter 61, Laozi takes the diplomacy between a large state and a small state as an example: “the large state, by taking the lower position, annexes the small state.” Laozi  underscores that it is only when the larger state exhibits tolerance and submission, as opposed to aggression and militancy, can it garner the goodwill and trust of the smaller state. Hence, those who align their actions with these feminine principles place themselves in a more advantageous position.

3. Associating Female Sexual and Reproductive Functions with Dao

Laozi depicts Dao as the “mother of the world.” In chapter 6, Laozi attributes various characteristics of female, especially the female sexual and reproductive functions, to Dao: “The spirit of the valley never dies. This is called the mysterious female. The gateway of the mysterious female is called the root of heaven and earth. Dimly visible, it seems as if it were there, Yet use will never drain it”.The valley is connected to the mysterious female in two ways: firstly, valleys, brimming with rivers and fertile soils, foster and nourish diverse life forms, such as plants, animals, and trees. This is symbolically akin to the role of the female womb that provides nutrients to the embryo. Secondly, the overall structure of a valley – a moist, concave, and open ‘container’ – bears resemblance to the form of female reproductive organs. Consequently, when Laozi refers to the mysterious female, he may specifically be indicating the female womb. The “gateway” may symbolize the opening of the womb during childbirth, a process through which new life emerges. At a more profound level, Laozi suggests that Dao functions akin to a “womb.” The Dao, the principal concept of Daodejing, embodies these characteristics: (1) Dao is empty^[4] and inexhaustible^[5]; (2) Dao generates the world^[6] (dao-sheng-wan-wu 道生万物). Dao, with its generative emptiness and nourishing capabilities, is the source of all beings. For this reason, Dao is equated with the infinite maternal force accountable for the nourishment and sustenance of all entities. Therefore, it would be justified to perceive the female as an anthropomorphic representation of Dao.

Two additional points of note include the comparative reading of A. Charles Muller’s translation, which offers minor variances that do not significantly impact text interpretation, and the literal interpretation of the “union of male and female (pin)” in chapter 55 as sexual intercourse, which does not necessitate further explanation.

Copyright Notice: All Rights Reserved. 

Works Cited

Lao Tzu, Trans. by D.C. Lau (1963). The Tao Te Ching.

Laozi, Trans. by A. Charles Muller (1991). Daode Jing.

Needham, J. (1956). The Water Symbol and the Feminine Symbol . In J. Needham, Science and Civilization in China (pp. 57-61). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

1. Daodejing, chapter 8. ↑
2. Science and Civilization in China, p.77. ↑
3. Daodejing, chapters 36 and 78. ↑
4. Ibid. chapter 4. ↑
5. Ibid. chapter 5. ↑
6. Ibid. chapter 42. ↑

 

Translated Text

[4:10] The Master said: “When the noble man deals with the world he is not prejudiced for or against anything. He does what is Right.

[4:11] The Master said: “The superior man thinks of virtue; the inferior man thinks of possessions. The superior man seeks discipline; the inferior man seeks favors.”

[14:22] Zi Lu asked how to deal with a ruler. Confucius said, “Do not impose on him, and, moreover, withstand him to his face.”

Analysis

In passage 4:11, Confucius draws a clear distinction between a superior man and an inferior man. Confucius says, “The superior man thinks of virtue; the inferior man thinks of possessions. The superior man seeks discipline; the inferior man seeks favors.” From a general reading of the passage, it can be seen that a superior man is a morally exemplary person who possesses virtue and acts in accordance with moral principles, whereas an inferior man disregards virtues and focuses on petty affairs such as benefits and reputations. However, at a deeper level, it is crucial to understand how such a distinction is established.

A close reading of the passage 4:11 would require an examination of the verbs’ think’ and ‘seek.’ Both verbs, though appear to mean differently, are translated from the same Chinese character ‘Huai 怀.’ In common usage, ‘Huai’ means having an attitude or an emotion toward something or someone. For example, one may possess (Huai) a sense of respect toward her teacher. ‘Huai’ also implies that attitude can influence action, just as a person who is respectful to his teacher would go to class on time, participate in class, etc. In the context of Passage 4:11, what Confucius implies by ‘Huai’ is that a person habituates moral concerns with which she would carry out her moral judgments and act accordingly. In Great Learning, this idea is described as “What truly is within will be manifested without.” While the common conception of ‘think’ may allow assorted considerations, ‘Huai’ demands one’s devotion to a particular moral position. Perhaps, it would be better to say, “The superior man [cherishes] virtue.”

Passage 14:22 could serve as a further illustration of the idea of ‘Huai’ or ‘cherish.’ When Confucius’ student Zi Lu asks how a ruler should be served, Confucius replies, “Do not impose on him, and, moreover, withstand him to his face.” An explanation of this passage would be that an inferior man would avoid criticizing and upsetting the ruler. Instead, he flatters the ruler to gain favors and rewards for himself. On the other hand, a superior man who cherishes virtue would restrain himself from personal desires and preferences when dealing with public affairs as he is solely devoted to Confucius’s moral principles. He will be honest with the ruler and will stand up against the ruler’s wrong deeds.

Moreover,  in passage 4:10, Confucius says, “A superior man in dealing with the world is not for anything or against anything. He follows righteousness as the standard.” One could treat this passage as a restatement of the arguments outlined in passage 4:11. The interpretation goes:  a superior man in dealing with the (public) world is not for or against anyone’s personal benefits and preferences. He only makes moral judgments against the principle of righteousness (or virtue). In the context of this passage, righteousness carries a very similar meaning as ‘virtue’. This could be shown by passage 4:16, which is almost identical to passage 4:11, where Confucius says, “The superior man is versed in what is righteous. The inferior man is versed in what is profitable.”

To sum up, an inferior man would take personal benefits and preferences as his priority. His judgments are not morally guided, and his actions do not incorporate virtue.  Conversely, a superior man would take virtues as his standard. He bases his moral judgments solely on moral principles and restrains himself from personal desires. Therefore, his actions are always appropriate to the Way.

Original Text

[4:10] 子曰：「君子之於天下也，無適也，無莫也，義之與比。」

[4:11] 子曰：「君子懷德，小人懷土；君子懷刑，小人懷惠。」

[14:22] 子路問事君。子曰：「勿欺也，而犯之。」

Translated Text

The man of superior virtue is not (conscious of) his virtue,

And in this way, he really possesses virtue. 

The man of inferior virtue never loses (sight of) his virtue,

And in this way he loses his virtue.

The man of superior virtue takes no action, but has no ulterior motive to do so.

The man of superior humanity takes action, but has no ulterior motive to do so.

The man of superior righteousness takes action, and has an ulterior motive to do so.

The man of superior propriety takes action, 

And when people do not respond to it, he will stretch his arms and force it on them.

Therefore, only when Dao is lost does the doctrine of virtue arise.

When virtue is lost, only then does the doctrine of humanity arise.

When humanity is lost, only then does the doctrine of righteousness arise.

When righteousness is lost, only then does the doctrine of propriety arise.

Now, propriety is a superficial expression of loyalty and faithfulness, and the beginning of disorder.

Those who are the first to know have the flowers (appearance) of Dao but are the beginning of ignorance.

For this reason the great man dwells in the thick (substantial), and does not rest with the thin (superficial).

He dwells in the fruit (reality), and does not rest with the flower (appearance).

Therefore, he rejects the one, and accepts the other.

Analysis

In this chapter, Laozi discusses the ways in which moral principles influence the evolution of society. In particular, he argues that conscious moral education, based on the tenets of Confucianism such as Humanity (Ren), Righteousness (Yi), and Propriety (Li), causes the decline of Dao and the corruption of social order.

Chapter 38 begins with: 

The man of superior virtue (De) is not (conscious of) his virtue (De),

And in this way he really possesses virtue. 

The man of inferior virtue (De) never loses (sight of) his virtue (De),

And in this way he loses his virtue.

What does Laozi mean when he says a virtuous man is unaware of his own ‘virtue’? How can one make sense of such an abstruse statement? First of all, note that the word ‘virtue’ was directly translated from the Chinese character ‘De (德)’. However, from a linguistic perspective, there was a subtle difference (which has often been ignored) between ‘De‘ and virtue in ancient times. While ‘virtue’ means high moral standards, ‘De‘ was more a less a neutral term: it refers to moral standards that can be evaluated (as good or bad). In ancient Chinese society, moral standards are evaluated based on what individuals got for the society (wealth, possessions, reputations, etc.), which ultimately boils down to what individuals got for themselves since there was very little distinction between individuals and a collective at that time. This is why in the Chinese language, ‘De’ is sometimes used as a homonym (德=得)^[1].

We can now go back and unpack the text. It is clear that ‘the man of superior virtue’ refers to a ruler with high moral standards (and conversely, ‘the man of inferior virtue’ refers to a ruler who has low moral standards). The subsequent ‘De’ is used as a homonym, meaning ‘to get’. Therefore, a ruler who has high moral standards is not conscious of what he gets for himself, so he is indeed virtuous. However, a ruler who has low moral standards pays too much attention to what he gets for himself (instead of for his people), so he loses his status (of being virtuous).

As the distinction between a virtuous ruler and a non-virtuous ruler is recognized, the remainder of the chapter becomes rather straightforward. Next, Laozi says,

The man of superior virtue takes no action, but has no ulterior motive to do so.

The man of superior humanity takes action, but has no ulterior motive to do so.

The man of superior righteousness takes action, and has an ulterior motive to do so.

The man of superior propriety takes action, 

And when people do not respond to it, he will stretch his arms and force it on them.

In this part of the chapter, Laozi argues that as civilization progresses, a ruler who adopts the Confucian moral teaching would no longer have his political principle based on high moral standards. He would rule in terms of Humanity first, then shift to Righteousness, and eventually to Propriety. As a result, his political system is in continuous moral degeneration. 

Laozi argues that the ruler in a political system based on high moral standards takes no action and has no ulterior motive because he has no personal desire to interfere with social development. However, a political system based on Humanity requires the ruler to take action because it aims for moral cultivation. For example, the ruler may have to introduce policies such as three years of moaning period for the death of parents in order to ‘morally’ transform his subjects. However, such a ruler still places the benefits of his people as the priority, so he is said to have no ulterior motive. On the other hand, a political system based on Righteousness implies that the ruler would move on to further interfere with society by establishing more rules on behavior and conduct. For example, he would ask his subject to kneel in front of him to show respect. However, his ulterior motive might be to fulfill his vanity and personal desire. Eventually, the ruler becomes morally corrupted and starts to rule in terms of Propriety by imposing rigid laws and behavioral codes on his people in order to exploit them. As a result, he inevitably faces opposition from his people, so he would have to use forces and punishments to achieve his goal.

Next, Laozi summarises his argument:

Therefore, only when Dao is lost does the doctrine of virtue arise.

When virtue is lost, only then does the doctrine of humanity arise.

When humanity is lost, only then does the doctrine of righteousness arise.

When righteousness is lost, only then does the doctrine of propriety arise.

This part can be easily understood as a repetition of Laozi’s previous statements.

Last, Laozi says,

Now, propriety is a superficial expression of loyalty and faithfulness, and the beginning of disorder.

Those who are the first to know have the flowers (appearance) of Dao but are the beginning of ignorance.

For this reason the great man dwells in the thick (substantial), and does not rest with the thin (superficial).

He dwells in the fruit (reality), and does not rest with the flower (appearance).

‘Those who are the first to know’ is translated from ‘前识者’. In the context of the text, it means ‘the political system prior to the introduction of the later’, which refers to Humanity (Ren). So by the end of chapter 38, Laozi reaches an important conclusion: we need to recognize that although Humanity is similar to Virtue in terms of its form, it would inevitably lead to chaos of disorder. Therefore, the ruler should abandon Confucian teachings and adhere to the Daoist teaching of Virtue. 

To sum up, in chapter 38 of Daodejing, Laozi argues that when the ruler rules in accordance with Dao, his original nature is unspoiled and he is removed from personal desires, so he is unconsciously good. The decline of virtues comes with the development of conscious moral knowledge, which leads to the moral deterioration of the ruler and eventually causes hypocrisy and chaos among the people.

Notes

[1] This can be verified using a Chinese dictionary.

Original Text

上德不德，是以有德。下德不失德，是以無德。

上德無為而無以為；下德為之而有以為；上仁為之而無以為。上義為之而有以為。上禮為之而莫之應，則攘臂而扔之。

故失道而後德，失德而後仁，失仁而後義，失義而後禮；夫禮者，忠信之薄而亂之首。前識者，道之華，而愚之始。

是以大丈夫處其厚，不居其薄，處其實，不居其華，故去彼取此。