The philosophical tradition of Daoism, as found in the Daodejing, centers on two key ideas: Dao (the Way) and wuwei (non-action). Dao, a complex and abstract idea, appears roughly 70 times in the Daodejing. Its interpretation varies greatly among scholars and readers, leading to significant debate. In this essay, I plan to delve into the meaning of Dao and wuwei in Daoist philosophy, discuss their importance, and share my views on these concepts.
After closely studying the texts, I suggest that there are three interconnected layers of meaning for Dao. These layers are: 1) Dao as a metaphysical concept, 2) Dao as objective laws and principles, and 3) Dao as practical and moral guidelines. I will detail each of these layers in the following sections.
- Dao as a Metaphysical Concept
Laozi endows Dao with numerous metaphysical properties. A key feature of the Dao is its generative capacity, seen as the source of all existence. Laozi suggests that “Dao gave birth to One, which led to Two, then Three, and ultimately to the myriad of things.” This implies Dao as the progenitor of all things. In chapter 6, Laozi uses feminine imagery to characterize Dao, specifically its reproductive functions: firstly, he likens Dao to the “mother of the world,” emphasizing its nurturing essence; secondly, he equates Dao to a womb, the “root of heaven and earth”. This comparison highlights the Dao‘s generative and nurturing qualities, as it functions like a “womb” for the entire universe.
Moreover, Dao, while productive, is depicted as empty yet inexhaustible. Laozi compares Dao to an empty vessel that remains unfilled despite its use, yet is vast and deep. This emptiness, much like a womb, underlines Dao‘s nourishing and generative void, serving as the source of all life and matter in the universe. This nurturing capability of Dao is also symbolized as a valley, abundant with rivers and fertile soil that sustains various life forms, signifying its perpetual substance. As it embodies all things without being bound to any, Dao possesses an empty nature. Hence, if correctly interpreted, Laozi confers an ontological status to Dao as the basis of all existence.
Dao is also characterized by its consistency and eternity. Laozi underscores that the Dao, being soundless, formless, and independent, remains unaltered. In Chapter 22 of the Daodejing, Laozi states, “The myriad creatures are all in motion! I watch as they turn back. The teeming multitude of things, each returns home to its root.” This quote highlights the constancy and eternity of the Dao, as it not only gives rise to all things but also brings them back to their origins. The multitude of creatures act, interact, create, and transform within the natural world, engaging in a complex dance of existence. However, under the guidance of the Dao, they eventually return to their original position and form. The Dao‘s eternity and constancy arise from its all-inclusive nature, as it encompasses all things without limitations.
Given the attributes and characteristics of Dao, we can infer that it is the origin of all existence, transcending the dualities of being and non-being, substance and emptiness. This indicates that Dao is the metaphysical and ontological foundation of the universe, and its power and impact are beyond human comprehension
- Dao as Objective Laws and Principles
Beyond its metaphysical implications, Dao may also be interpreted as a collection of natural principles or laws that are discernible and articulable by us. This interpretation of Dao, however, is inherently partial, bound by temporal and situational constraints, and relegated to particular descriptions. Essentially, this perspective of Dao mirrors nature, relying on our empirical observations, investigations, and applications to determine its patterns within nature and the universe.
Laozi elucidates, “Man follows Earth. Earth follows Heaven. Heaven follows Dao. Dao follows Nature.” Our ability to uncover principles and laws in nature stems from Dao‘s encompassing nature, pervading all things in the world, which underpins the spontaneity and naturalness of the world. Thus, what we observe are still aspects of the Dao, even though the totality of Dao remains beyond comprehension.
As an illustration, Laozi employs the metaphor of water, extrapolated from his observations of water’s conduct in nature, to propose that we should emulate water: non-contentious, humble, and lowly. This suggests that we can navigate the path of Dao, while acknowledging that its totality remains beyond our grasp. The Dao that can be verbalized is not the constant Dao, and as such, we must recognize the boundaries of our comprehension as we attempt to incorporate its principles into our lives. By observing and comprehending patterns, principles, and laws within the natural world, Laozi could unveil meaningful insights into the Dao and its applications.
- Dao as Practical and Moral Guidelines
The third dimension of understanding views Dao not merely as an abstract philosophical notion, but also as a practical code of conduct for daily life. Laozi posits that ethics are predicated on the alignment of human behavior with Dao. This alignment is prescriptive, demanding adherence to Dao from all humans. Laozi asserts that an act is virtuous only if it aligns with the natural path of Dao. Morality involves emulating Dao, which surpasses human interpretations of good. When humans implement Dao in their actions, they achieve Virtue (De). Likewise, other creatures that manifest Dao in their existence exemplify Virtue (De). In this context, “Virtue” delineates the ideal state for all forms of existence.
Laozi’s teachings primarily emphasize the moral principle of non-action or inactivity (wuwei). It could be argued that the primary motivation behind Laozi’s Daodejing is the promotion of non-action. Non-action, as proposed by Laozi, is not tantamount to passivity or laziness but a purposeful pursuit aimed at accomplishing more than what excessive effort could achieve. For instance, in chapter 38, Laozi states, “Those of highest Virtue do not strive for Virtue and so they have it. Those of lowest Virtue never stray from Virtue and so they lack it.” In chapter 22, he notes, “Because they do not contend, no one in the world can contend with them.”
Moreover, Laozi employs various metaphors to elucidate non-action, such as those of the female and valleys. In chapters 6 and 28, he likens “the role of the female” to “the spirit of the valley” and “the ravine of the empire.” These metaphors resonate with the water metaphor, a recurring theme in the Daodejing. Valleys and ravines, being low-lying land areas usually with a stream, embody and reflect water’s attributes such as receptivity, passivity, softness, yielding, humility, and harmony with all things in nature. These qualities align with the principle of non-action. Laozi also underscores how the female (symbolizing non-action) overcomes the male (symbolizing power and dominance). In chapter 28, he advises to “keep to the role of the female,” and in chapter 61, he claims that “the female always gets the better of the male.” This suggests the triumph of the feminine over the masculine akin to the soft overcoming the hard, the weak overcoming the strong, the yielding overcoming the dominating, and so forth.
On a political level, non-action is the ideal method of ruling. For instance, in chapter 61, Laozi takes the diplomacy between a large state and a small state as an example: “The large state, by taking the lower position, annexes the small state.” Laozi insists that when the large state is tolerant and submissive instead of aggressive and militant, it can secure the goodwill and trust of the smaller state. Therefore, those who act in accordance with principles of non-contending and non-acting put themselves in a more advantageous position.
However, it’s important to note that, unlike Confucius, Laozi’s principle of non-action isn’t designed to “rectify” the world, nor does it provide practical guidance for restoring order in a corrupt world. Instead, he presents an ideal suited for a primitive society with basic natural needs. Laozi held that all unnatural desires stem from societal conditioning. In his perspective, human nature is inherently good, and the natural world is harmonious. Thus, the less human interference, the more harmonious human society becomes.
In conclusion, following the exploration of the tri-layered interpretation of Dao and the concepts of wuwei as a moral and political paradigm, I wish to put forth personal insights and assessments.
Although this essay has delved into numerous metaphysical and ontological facets of Dao, my personal viewpoint is that these are not the primary concerns or objectives of Laozi in composing this text. Instead, I propose that Laozi’s intention was to establish a philosophical basis for his moral and political philosophies. According to my interpretation and assessment, roughly 80% of Dao‘s usage centers on the second and third layers of meaning. Another indication supporting my conjecture is the frequent usage of the term “sage,” referring to an ideal ruler, which features 32 times across 23 chapters in the text. This implies that Laozi dedicated approximately one-third of the entire text to discussing the nature of ideal governance and the potential pitfalls rulers should avoid. Consequently, I put forth that Laozi is more of a pragmatic problem-solver than a theoretical philosopher or mystic practitioner. The emphasis on practicality and real-world applicability is more apparent when assessing the moral and political dimensions of his teachings.
However, I concede that more evidence and corroboration are needed to fortify my argument, and alternate viewpoints are plausible. It is vital to persist in probing Laozi’s philosophy from diverse perspectives to attain a holistic understanding of his teachings and intents. Like any philosophical text, interpretations and evaluations may diverge, yet the depth of Laozi’s thought offers abundant scope for continued discourse and analysis.
Note:
- The principal translations consulted for this essay were those by Philip J. Ivanhoe and D.C. Lau.
- Due to constraints in time and space, I did not delve into why Laozi proposed non-action as superior to taking action. However, his argument supporting this viewpoint can be traced to chapter 40.